agricultural failures and starvation.
? Earthquakes: Evidence from archaeological sites suggests major earthquakes.
? Political Turmoil: Trade network collapses due to political crises may have weakened urban centers, leading to decline.
The Rigveda
The Rigveda is the first of the four Vedas, a collection of hymns dedicated to various deities. It provides insights into the social, political, and economic aspects of the Aryans.
Political Life
Tribes were led by Rajans, who performed priestly functions and commanded armies. Political administration involved priests, military leaders, territorial officers, and village heads. Regular armies were not maintained, but militia forces were assembled during wars.
Social Life
Kinship formed the basis of Vedic social structure. Family units were headed by Kulpas. Certain occupations, despite being heritable, were not strictly caste-based. Physical appearance was noted in the Rigveda, with Purusha Sukta in the Rigveda mentioning four Varnas (social classes).
Economic Structure
The Vedic economy was primarily pastoral, with cattle constituting the basic form of wealth. Gold coins and cattle were used as units of exchange. Crafts such as carpentry and pottery were practiced. Kings functioned on voluntary offerings, as regular revenue systems were absent.
Vedic Religion
Natural forces like the Earth, fire, wind, rain, and thunder were personified as gods and worshipped. Rituals and sacrifices were the primary forms of worship. Prayers sought material benefits rather than spiritual fulfillment. Notable deities included Indra, Varuna, and Agni. Female deities like Aditi and Usha also appear, but less prominently.
Prehistoric Period of India
? Prehistory refers to the time before writing was invented.
? Prehistory is divided into three periods:
o Paleolithic Age (Old Stone Age): 20,000 BCE - 10,000 BCE
o Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age): 10,000 BCE - 6,000 BCE
o Neolithic Age (New Stone Age): 6,000 BCE - 2,000 BCE
Harappan Civilization: Advancements and Decline
Societies, Culture, and Economy
In the realms of the Indus Valley civilization, which flourished in Lothal and Harappa, arts, crafts, and advancements were born. Jewelry, cosmetics, and fashion were embraced, as evidenced by diverse hairstyles and beards. Artifacts suggest religious practices beyond the prominent Great Bath, hinting at the worship of a mother goddess and the reverence for Tree and animal deities.
Although the Harappans had a proto-historic society, their written language remains undeciphered. Their script, a logo syllabic system, was written in a boustrophedon style, flowing from right to left and then left to right.
Burial practices in Harappa provide insights into their beliefs. Bodies were often interred with grave goods such as pottery and artifacts, indicating a belief in an afterlife. Social hierarchies are suggested by differences in burial quality.
Decline of the Harappan Civilization
The demise of the Harappan civilization remains a subject of debate and speculation. Theories include:
? Aryan Invasion: Some scholars propose that the Harappans were invaded by outsiders, leading to their decline. However, archaeological evidence supports only limited invasions.
? Environmental Factors: Climate change may have contributed to the civilization's decline, as reduced water flow led to agricultural failures and starvation.
? Earthquakes: Evidence from archaeological sites suggests major earthquakes.
? Political Turmoil: Trade network collapses due to political crises may have weakened urban centers, leading to decline.
The Rigveda
The Rigveda is the first of the four Vedas, a collection of hymns dedicated to various deities. It provides insights into the social, political, and economic aspects of the Aryans.
Political Life
Tribes were led by Rajans, who performed priestly functions and commanded armies. Political administration involved priests, military leaders, territorial officers, and village heads. Regular armies were not maintained, but militia forces were assembled during